US Neutrality Acts of the 1930s and the Lend-Lease Act

US Neutrality Acts of the 1930s and the Lend-Lease Act The Neutrality Acts were a series of laws enacted by the United States government between 1935 and 1939 that were intended to prevent the United States from becoming involved in foreign wars. They more-or-less succeeded until the imminent threat of World War II spurred passage of the 1941 Lend-Lease Act (H.R. 1776), which repealed several key provisions of the Neutrality Acts. Key Takeaways: Neutrality Acts and Lend-Lease The Neutrality Acts, enacted between 1935 and 1939, were intended to prevent the United States from becoming involved in foreign wars.In 1941, the threat of World War II drove passage of the Lend-Lease Act repealing key provisions of the Neutrality Acts.Championed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Lend-Lease Act authorized the transfer of U.S. arms or other war materials to Britain, France, China, the Soviet Union, and other nations threatened by the Axis powers without the requirement of monetary repayment. Isolationism Spurred the Neutrality Acts Although many Americans had supported President Woodrow Wilson’s 1917 demand that Congress help create a world â€Å"made safe for democracy† by declaring war on Germany in World War I, the Great Depression of the 1930s spurred a period of American isolationism that would persist until the nation entered World War II in 1942. Many people continued to believe that World War I had involved mainly foreign issues and that America’s entry into the bloodiest conflict in human history had mainly benefited U.S. bankers and arms dealers. These beliefs, combined with the people’s ongoing struggle to recover from the Great Depression, fueled an isolationist movement that opposed the nation’s involvement future foreign wars and financial involvement with the countries fighting in them. The Neutrality Act of 1935 By the mid-1930s, with war in Europe and Asia imminent, the U.S. Congress took action to ensure U.S. neutrality in foreign conflicts. On August 31, 1935, Congress passed the first Neutrality Act. The primary provisions of the law banned the export of â€Å"arms, ammunition, and implements of war† from the United States to any foreign nations at war and required U.S. arms makers to apply for export licenses. â€Å"Whoever, in violation of any of the provisions of this section, shall export, or attempt to export, or cause to be exported, arms, ammunition, or implements of war from the United States, or any of its possessions, shall be fined not more than $10,000 or imprisoned not more than five years, or both †¦,† stated the law. The law also specified that all arms and war materials found being transported from the U.S. to any foreign nations at war, along with the â€Å"vessel, or vehicle† carrying them would be confiscated. In addition, the law placed American citizens on notice that if they attempted to travel to any foreign nation in a war zone, they did so at their own risk and should not expect any protection or intervention on their behalf from the U.S. government. On February 29, 1936, Congress amended the Neutrality Act of 1935 to prohibit individual Americans or financial institutions from loaning money to foreign nations involved in wars. While President Franklin D. Roosevelt initially opposed and considered vetoing the Neutrality Act of 1935, he signed it in the face of strong public opinion and congressional support for it.   The Neutrality Act of 1937 In 1936, the Spanish Civil War and the growing threat of fascism in Germany and Italy boosted support for further expanding the scope of the Neutrality Act. On May 1, 1937, Congress passed a joint resolution known as the Neutrality Act of 1937, which amended and made the Neutrality Act of 1935 permanent. Under the 1937 Act, U.S. Citizens were barred from traveling on any ship registered to or owned by any foreign nation involved in ​a  war. In addition, American merchant ships were forbidden from carrying arms to such â€Å"belligerent† nations, even if those arms were made outside of the United States.  The president was given the authority to ban all ships of any sort belonging to nations at war from sailing in U.S. waters. The Act also extended its prohibitions to apply to nations involved in civil wars, like the Spanish Civil War. In one concession to President Roosevelt, who had opposed the first Neutrality Act, the 1937 Neutrality Act gave the president the authority to allow nations at war to acquire materials not considered â€Å"implements of war,† such as oil and food, from the United States, provided the material was immediately paid for – in cash – and that the material was carried only on foreign ships. The so-called â€Å"cash-and-carry† provision had been promoted by Roosevelt as a way to Help Great Britain and France in their looming war against the Axis Powers. Roosevelt reasoned that only Britain and France had enough cash and cargo ships to take advantage of the â€Å"cash-and-carry† plan. Unlike other provisions of the Act, which were permanent, Congress specified that that â€Å"cash-and-carry† provision would expire in two years. The Neutrality Act of 1939 After Germany occupied Czechoslovakia in March of 1939, President Roosevelt asked Congress to renew the â€Å"cash-and-carry† provision and expand it to include arms and other materials of war. In a stinging rebuke, Congress refused to do either. As the war in Europe expanded and the Axis nations’ sphere of control spread, Roosevelt persisted, citing the Axis threat to the freedom of America’s European allies. At last, and only after lengthy debate, Congress relented and in November of 1939, enacted a final Neutrality Act, which repealed the embargo against the sale of arms and placed all trade with nations at war under the terms of â€Å"cash-and-carry.† However, the prohibition of U.S. monetary loans to belligerent nations remained in effect and U.S. ships were still prohibited from delivering goods of any kind to countries at war. The Lend-Lease Act of 1941 By late 1940, it had become unavoidably apparent to Congress that the growth of the Axis powers in Europe could eventually threaten the lives and freedom of Americans. In an effort to help the nations fighting the Axis, Congress enacted the Lend-Lease Act (H.R. 1776) in March 1941. The Lend-Lease Act authorized the President of the United States to transfer arms or other defense-related materials – subject to ​the  approval of funding by Congress – to the â€Å"government of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States† at no cost to those countries. Permitting the president to send arms and war materials to Britain, France, China, the Soviet Union, and other threatened nations without payment, the Lend-Lease plan allowed the United States to support the war effort against the Axis without becoming engaged in battle. Viewing the plan as drawing America closer to war, Lend-Lease was opposed by influential isolationists, including Republican Senator Robert Taft. In debate before the Senate, Taft stated that the Act would â€Å"give the president power to carry on a kind of undeclared war all over the world, in which America would do everything except actually put soldiers in the front-line trenches where the fighting is.† Among the public, opposition to Lend-Lease was led by the America First Committee. With a membership of over 800,000, including national hero Charles A. Lindbergh, America First challenged Roosevelt’s every move. Roosevelt took complete control of the program, quietly sending Sec. of Commerce Harry Hopkins, Sec. of State Edward Stettinius Jr., and diplomat W. Averell Harriman on frequent special missions to London and Moscow to coordinate Lend-Lease overseas. Still acutely aware of public sentiment for neutrality, Roosevelt saw to it that details of Lend-Lease expenditures were hidden away in the overall military budget and not allowed to become public until after the war. It is now known that a total of $50.1 billion- about $681 billion today- or about 11% of the total U.S. war expenditures went to Lend-Lease. On a country-by-country basis, U.S. expenditures broke down as follows: British Empire: $31.4 billion (about $427 billion today)Soviet Union: $11.3 billion (about $154 billion today)France: $3.2 billion (about $43.5 billion today)China: $1.6 billion (about to $21.7 billion today) By October 1941, the overall success of the Lend-Lease plan in assisting the allied nations prompted President Roosevelt to seek the repeal of other sections of the Neutrality Act of 1939. On October 17, 1941, the House of Representatives overwhelmingly voted to repeal the section of the Act prohibiting the arming of U.S. merchant ships. A month later, following a series of deadly German submarine attacks on U.S. Navy and merchant ships in international waters, Congress repealed the provision that had barred U.S. ships from delivering arms to belligerent seaports or â€Å"combat zones.† In retrospect, the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s allowed the U.S. Government to accommodate the isolationist sentiment held by a majority of the American people while still protecting America’s security and interests in a foreign war. The Lend-Lease agreements provided that the countries involved would repay the United States not with money or returned goods, but with â€Å"joint action directed towards the creation of a liberalized international economic order in the postwar world.† Meaning the U.S. would be repaid when the recipient country helped the U.S. fight common enemies and agreed to join new world trade and diplomatic agencies, such as the United Nations. Of course, the isolationists’ hopes of America maintaining any pretense of neutrality in World War II ended on the morning of December 7, 1942, when the Japanese Navy attacked the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

Nike marketing from 1964 until today Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Nike marketing from 1964 until today - Essay Example There are about 44000 people working in Nike Inc. globally. The chain of stores that Nike runs are named as Niketown (www.nikeinc.com, 2012). It has contracts with about 700 suppliers and contractors outside the USA. There are about 45 offices of Nike situated in countries other than USA. Majority of its manufacturing factories are placed and operated in Asian countries such as China, Indonesia, Taiwan, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Philippines (www.nikeinc.com, 2012). Business Products The main products offered by Nike worldwide are sport shoes such as track running shoes, clothing’s like jersey jackets, shorts, base layers. Accessories and equipment may include All of these are complementary products and are offered alike at all the available chain of stores under Nike Brand name (www.nikeinc.com, 2012). These items can be broadly divided into three main products sportswear shoes, and clothing line items and associated accessories and equipment (www.nikei nc.com, 2012). Marketing Trends of Nike Incorporation Nike is the stunning outcome of two athletes, an athletic trainer at the University of Oregon (Bill Bowerman), the other was runner and accounting student semi-bottom (Phil Knight) who had the idea of importing Japanese athletic shoes but was not too expensive and technically efficient enough. They joined in 1965 and Jeff Johnson becomes the first vendor-company representative who explored the athletic stadiums in the country to promote their shoes. But soon, Bowerman wanted to make his own shoes. Therefore Nike’s operations and promotions were actually initiated in 1972. In 1972, the king of sport shoes Adidas was German. Nike came as leisure sports and started booming but the market was still untapped. Nike became the predecessor of offshoring. At the time, the concept was new in the field of textile. Now followed by the majority of its competitors, but this innovation enabled it to secure a monopoly rents through market dominance undeniable over the years. Nike never had factory and remained true to its economic principles departure: subcontracting in developing countries for a maximum profit. The Nike logo (named by Swoosh) is very simple and immediately recognisable. It caused a great deal in brand awareness and had often been borrowed. In the years 70/80s, marketing was dominated by what the lifestyle appellate. Brands had an ideal world in which the consumer was projected willingly. Nike reused this principle but added specific values. Nike values included freedom, spontaneity, overshoot, Individualism, struggle, desire to go further, to reach its limits, willingness to extract rules and formal side of the flange sports (Nike claims an institutional aspect of the sport and the influence of federations sediment yet in many disciplines). All these values are derived from the original sports brand, namely the "running" (The race), individualistic sports where the concept of passing is central. Mo reover, one of the models of the brand is the athlete Steve Prefontaine (runneur bottom half) who played a good part in the values that were dear to the brand. Nike was going to change this whole vision of sport culture. And this vision was that of the American sports model that can be called as, the cult of performance. The important fact for Nike was not to participate but to win, that goes perfectly against the European sports model, which in turn, emphasizes sportsmanship, fair play and promotes a sport at the collective

Exercise 5.3 and 5.4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Exercise 5.3 and 5.4 - Assignment Example He said that many drivers had removed their winter snow tires and the dusting was enough to create conditions in which cars slid off the road.                   A call to the National Weather Service at Fargos Hector International airport also yielded that a narrow band of storm clouds rolled across central North Dakota, dumping just a tenth of an inch of snow. The NWS spokesperson Todd Drizzle said, â€Å"We got a bit more than we expected," adding that forecasters had expected "mere flurries." D. B. Dotty, 124 W. Breedlaw Road, who also witnessed the accident, testified that the ground froze fast the previous night to near zero. â€Å"The concrete was so cold this morning that instead of melting, the snow turned to ice. Nobody expected it. It got slick all of a sudden," She said. When I arrived there, motorists had fled the scene of the accident and backed up half a mile on both sides of the scene. Responding also to the accident were a water-tanker truck, a paramedics unit, a rescue squad, two fire engines, state and county troopers and a tow truck. The other car driver John Washburn, a 22-year-old undergraduate at North Dakota State University, was unhurt after driving his white Geo Metro into a mailbox on Poplar Avenue. Mr.Washbum regretted having pulled off his snow tires the previous week. â€Å"I guess Ill wait a few more weeks next year. Sure stinks to get stuck in the snow," he said. A police spokesperson observed that most of the 60 accidents occurred between 9 a.m. and 1 p.m. Melinda Frades, a 69-year-old woman has lost to fire a home and small barn at 384 Serramonte Ave. The estimated value of the property was $1.2 million. The fire began at about 4 p.m. at the bottom of a hill near the highway and spread up to the top, where it reached the single-story ranch-style house. According to Woodside Fire Capt. Jan Spiegel, it looked like it might have been something somebody threw from a car, although this is yet to be

The exhibition as a process and as a product Case Study

The exhibition as a process and as a product - Case Study Example of the team into a multi-disciplinary exhibition research team is that; it is through broad research into exhibition themes and subjects, that it can be possible to design an exhibition theme that will be relevant, yet attractive to a broad audience (Morris, 2002:8). Thus, through the different research areas that the sub-groups of the team engaged in analyzing, it eventually became possible to emerge with the theme of displaying how and why image has been controlled through time. Further, the operation of the team as a research group was further reinforced by the ability of the team to work together in harmony, a factor that was a major source of strength for the process. Teamwork is an essential component for achieving success in different projects, and most especially in projects that entail combination of different individual strengths (Bedno, 1999:42). The process of preparing for an exhibition highly depends on the multiple strengths of different members of a team, considering that there are different roles that need to be played in the process, such as planning, designing, interpreting, curate and educating the audience (Downey, 2002:44). All these different roles highly depended on the different strengths of the team members, considering that some team members were highly competent in researching and developing content, while others were good at designing and planning, and still others played the role of educating the audience very well. This combination eventually produced a very competent team, considering that specialization is an effective strategy in the process of division of labor, which allows individuals to concentrate and specialize on the areas that they are highly competent and proficient (Kamien, 2002:127). Through this specialization and division of labor, the work process was effectively broken down into categories of tasks, and the competent individuals in such areas were offered the responsibilities. Thus, specialization and division of

Ethnographic Report Essay Example for Free

Ethnographic Report Essay In order to make an ethnographic report, I visited a shop of Toys â€Å"R† Us in my native city in California. It was located in a big new shopping center in the main street of the city. It was not a very big toy shop, but there was quite a good variety of different toys, and also there was a small section of the goods for babies Kids â€Å"R† Us. That day it was really very crowded there, because it was Saturday afternoon and many parents could take their children out for shopping. Besides, as this mall was a brand new one in the city, there were dozens and dozens of new interested customers, arriving all the time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     First of all, I paid attention on numerous young couples and teenagers, who came there definitely without intentions to buy something, but rather to do window shopping. This could happen because the shop was, again, a brand-new place. Of course, there were many children there, who came mostly with their mothers or elder siblings. There were a lot of young women in the section of Kids â€Å"R† Us, who were interested in clothes, footwear or toys for little babies. Therefore, I could notice almost total absence of mid-aged men in the shop.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It was not easy to estimate correctly, whether those children were mostly boys or girls. Probably, the amount of male and female children in the shop was approximately equal. Boys were very energetic. They enjoyed mostly action toys, plastic guns, remote controlled cars and basketball sets. Some of them insisted on buying different toys from Spiderman and Hulk series, some chose Spiderman comics, and two of little boys became happy owners of Lego sets. Also, miraculous but rather expensive multifunctional Robosapien Robot was an extreme attraction for all the male part of the visitors. Certainly, little girls were very greatly interested in Barbie-dolls and their all possible accessories. Many girls were asking their mums to buy special sets of toy cosmetics and little dresses for their Barbie dolls. Some girls decided to buy new back-bags, stationary or other accessories for school, and one girl asked her mother to buy a big set for arts and crafts. Some little girls preferred to buy little plastic toys, like My Little Pony with a long tail and mane to be brushed by a little brush, included to the set. Extreme crowd of children of both genders could be observed in the section of stuffed animals, where lots of beautiful dogs, cats, horses, tigers or teddy bears, small and big in size, were waiting for their owners. There were many adults in this section also. Three-four of young men bought some cute teddy bears for their girl-friends, and one couple bought a huge stuffed dog. Teenagers and young people were more concentrated on electronic games, PC games, table games, and especially puzzles: I guess, more than a dozen of different puzzles was bought that day. Also, any little child could receive a huge colored balloon from the consultants of the shop in the exit: that used to make many little customers of Toys â€Å"R† US go almost ecstatic.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During my visit I could observe overwhelming majority of White Americans among the customers of the shop, but there was a family of Blacks: parents and their two little daughters, who were not in hurry and slowly walked, watching around with great interest. Black girls were very silent; they enjoyed plastic sets for playing on the sand, and then they chose a little doll of black color, which late on was bought by their parents for their pleasure. Besides, there were some children of Latin origin, who seemed to be there without parents, so they were extremely noisy and active. They were running around and trying many different toys without special preferences: balls, guns, cars, etc. But in the end they did not buy anything proper, but some sets of plastic water guns and a cheap rubber ball. Generally, I would classify social status of all the visitors like low and mid class. I think, about 70% of all the buys were made by adults, mostly mothers or elder brothers, but there were children, who had some own money and could get something they want for themselves. But, certainly, serious expensive toys could be bought only by adults. To my mind, the most popular toys are action figures and accessories for Barbie. Visiting a toy shop is always pleasure for anybody. Shops of Toys â€Å"R† Us are really very beautiful, very optimistic places, where everybody seems to become very happy and joyful. It is so great to have such wonderful places all around the country, where every day thousands of smiles and good emotions are brought to so many people! Bibliography:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Toys â€Å"R† Us. Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia Online. 4 Oct. 2005. 6 Oct. 2005 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toys_R_Us.

Problem of Rising Higher Education Costs

Problem of Rising Higher Education Costs Today, the problem of rising costs of higher education evokes heat debate among the public and policy-makers. In actuality, the high costs of higher education become an unsurpassable barrier for many students living in poverty-stricken neighborhoods and belonging to low-income families. In this respect, specialists (Breneman Finney, 1997) argue that students should have an opportunity to carry on their education in college depending on their academic skills and potential rather than on their financial position, social status, or other factors, such as cultural background or race. First of all, specialists argue that the public funding is ineffective (Cabrera, Norn, Castaneda, 1992). The state and federal funds are used ineffectively, whereas the quality of the public education remains extremely low, especially compared to private education. As a result students graduating from public schools have fewer opportunities to enter and succeed in college compared to students graduating from private schools. Furthermore, costs of higher education are unaffordable for many students (Heller, 1997). Today, costs of college education keep growing and students cannot afford paying for their college education, whereas educating children becomes an unaffordable burden for many families. As a result social gaps widens that leads to the exclusion of students from low-income families belonging to lower classes from the college education (McDonough, 1997). In fact, the costs of college education becomes the barrier preventing students from low-income families from entering. In addition, many specialists argue that racial gaps also widen depriving minority students of the possibility to obtain the college education (Freeman, 1997). In this regard, African Americans and other minority students are in a disadvantageous position. In spite of existing programs for minority students as well as for low-income students, they are ineffective and social and racial gaps persist. In this regard, the high costs of tuition is one of the major factors that put students in an unequal position and prevent them from equal access to college education (Kaltenbaugh, John, Starkey, 1999). In such a way, many students need the assistance from the part of the state and federal agencies to afford college education. Finally, cultural differences also affect the availability of college education along with the high costs of college education (McDonough, 1998). Some students are not prepared to pay high costs for college education, even if they can afford it, because of their cultural traditions. However, cultural differences are probably the least significant compared to the high costs of college education and tuition. In addition, the high costs of living increase the costs of college education. In such a situation, a considerable part of students from low-income families is just left aside of college education. Proposal for Position Obviously, the lack of access to college education for students from low-income families and from minorities is dangerous for the further development of the US society. Widening gaps between students and the lack of access to college education will lead to social and racial conflicts in the US society. In such a situation, the government should develop effective state and federal aid programs which can provide all students with equal opportunities to access the college education and to obtain their higher education to realize their full potential. On the other hand, the main problem is the effective use of public funds. In this respect, the community control can be an effective measure that provides students in need with better opportunities to obtain college education. In fact, local community members know better than state or federal authorities which students need aid and local communities should have an opportunity to use public funds to aid students in need. Therefore, public fu nds should be redistributed at the local level to provide students in need with essential financial aid to continue their education and to enter colleges. Jessica Willbanks Annotated Bibliography Professor Grower English 112 20 March 2011 Breneman, D., Finney, J. (1997). The changing landscape: Higher education finance in the 1990s. In P. M. Callan J. E. Finney (Eds.), Public and private financing of higher education. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press. The authors focus on funding of the higher education. The authors distinguish private and public sources of funding stressing that the public funding is not always effective and deprives many students of the possibility to obtain higher education. Cabrera, A. F. (1994). Logistic regression analysis in higher education: An applied perspective. In J. C. Smart (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research, 10, New York: Agathon. The author explores the development of the higher education and its future prospects. The author arrives to the conclusion that education will shift to higher costs and wider use of information technologies. Cabrera, A. F., Norn, A., Castaneda, M. B. (1992). The role of finances in the persistence process: A structural model. Research in Higher Education, 33, 57 1-593. The authors reveal existing models of funding of college education, uncovering persisting gaps between low-income students and students from upper-classes. The existing structure of the college education and its funding is ineffective and widens gaps between students. Cabrera, A. F., Nora, A., Castaneda, M. B. (1993). College persistence: Structural equations modeling test of an integrated model of student retention. Journal of Higher Education, 64, 123-139. The authors attempt to elaborate an efficient model of the assessment of effectiveness of funding college education and costs of college education. Freeman, K. (1997). Increasing African Americans participation in higher education. Journal of Higher Education, 68, 523-550. The author focuses on the problem of the lack of access of African American students to college education. The author defines ways which can increase the share of African American students in college education and open college education for minorities. Grubb, W. N. (1996). Working in the middle. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. The author discusses the development of the modern higher education and education system at large. The author identifies numerous problems, among which high costs of higher education are among the most serious problems that put students in unequal position. Heller, D. E. (1997). Student price response in higher education: An update to Leslie and Brinkman. Journal of Higher Education, 68, 624-659. The author draws the audiences attention to growing costs of higher education and forecasts that costs of college education will grow even more. In addition, the author discusses negative effects of high costs of college education. Hossler, D., Schmitt, J. (1995). The Indiana postsecondary-encouragement experiment. In E. P. St. John (Ed.), Rethinking tuition and student aid strategies. New Directions in Higher Education, 89, 27-39, San Francisco: Jossey Bass, The authors explore efforts of the Indiana authorities to encourage college education. They evaluate critically state aid to needy students and suggest using Indiana experience in other states. Kaltenbaugh, L. S., St. John, E. P., Starkey, J. B. (1999). What difference does tuition make? An analysis of ethnic differences in persistence. Journal of Student Financial Aid, 29 (2), 21-31. The authors of the article raise the problem of high costs of tuition, which becomes an unsurpassable barrier for many students on their way to college education. McDonough, P. M. (1997). Choosing colleges: How social class and schools structure opportunity. Albany: SUNY Press. The author explores the problem of the impact of social class of students on their education opportunities. The author stresses that students from low-income families have little opportunities to obtain higher education. McDonough, P. M. (1998). Structuring college opportunities: A cross-case analysis or organizational cultures, climates, and habiti. In C. A. Torres T. R. Mitchell (Eds.), Sociology of education: Emerging perspectives, 181-210, Albany: SUNY Press. The author studies the impact of the cultural background on students performance in college revealing differences between different cultural groups. Paulsen, M.B. P. J. Edward. (2002). Social Class and College Costs: Examining the Financial Nexus between College Choice and Persistence. Journal of Higher Education, 73(2), 189-197. The authors reveal the wide gap between students belonging to different social classes. The authors argue that social class is an important factor preventing students from or admitting to higher education.

Elaboration Likelyhood Essay -- essays research papers

Elaboration Likelihood 2 Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Recently the nation was bombarded with political ad campaigns of all shapes and sizes. There were the ads for and against succession, the ads that attempted to show Gray Davis as someone who could actually run the state of California, and the ads that didn’t really seem to have any purpose at all. It is obvious that each of these campaigns was focused on a specific target audience. What may not have been so obvious was that each of the ad campaigns was also based upon the involvement or interest of the voters (Perloff, 1993). This involvement or interest is a component of the Elaboration Likelihood Model. This theory helps advertising consultants decide what elections are important to voters and what elections have no relevance to anyone but lawmakers (Perloff, 1993). Important elections, such as the gubernatorial race will have strong arguments and depth while not so significant elections, such as the clean water initiative will rely on cues that are undem anding in terms of the amount of brain power used (Perloff, 1993).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The application of the Elaboration Likelihood Model to political campaigns is just one of the many practical uses of this theory. But before it is possible to examine other possible applications of the ELM, one must understand the basic ideas and factors that make it work. After a clear understanding of the ELM is devolved it will be shown in relation to the specific communication perspective that it fits into, and then used to evaluate a real life situation. Subsequent to the evaluation of the practical application the ELM will be scrutinized and summed up, but first the basics. Description of Theory   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Elaboration Likelihood 3 The elaboration likelihood theory was created by two social scientists, Richard Petty and John Cacioppo, who sought to create a model of persuasion that was more inclusive in terms of the range and depth in which the theory covered (Perloff, 1993). Petty and Cacioppo’s theory is a culmination of their research in the area of â€Å"cognitive responses to persuasion† and theories of attitude change (Perloff, 1993, p. 118). The ELM is a theory of persuasion with a central premise that seeks to explain how deeply an individual will elaborate the arguments of a persuasive message by examining the ind... ...ovements. First of all, Perloff (1993, p. 132) makes the point that there should be more consideration of â€Å"situational and personality factors that might interact to influence the processing strategy.† Perloff (1993, p. 132) also would like to know â€Å"how do people simultaneously process central and peripheral information?† Elaboration Likelihood 10 References Bargh, J. A. (2002, September). Losing Consciousness: Automatic Influences on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consumer Judgment, Behavior, and Motivation. Journal of Consumer Research,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  29 (2).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Littlejohn, S. W. (2001). Theories of Human Communication. Albuquerque, NM:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wadsworth. Perloff, R. M. (1993). The Dynamics of Persuasion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assoc. Sereno, K. (2002, Fall). Comm 200: Communication as a Social Science. Lecture Notes. Stephenson, M. T., Benoit, W. L., Tschida, D. A. (2001). Testing the Mediating Role of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cognitive Responses in the Elaboration Likelihood Model. Communication   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Studies, 52 (4), 324-338.